The Kkk History And The Aftermath Of Their Actions

The â€Å"KKK† History and the Aftermath of Their Actions There are many people who think of the KKK as a terrorist group but it did not start that way initially. The Klan started as a social group and turned into one of the nations largest and most feared terrorist groups our country has ever seen. Whereas they were just preserving the old gospel belief of racial separation, once slavery was abolished the KKK was able to inflict the pain, torture and murder on any former slave they deemed, given that the KKK controlled the African Americans, the way the old patrols did. Although, the KKK is not as big as once was the threat may still be very real. After the civil war ended, the southern plantations, cities, and farms were in ruins, they were faced with hunger and being impoverished. There was even an occupational army in their core. Reconstruction governments were threatening to seize the traditional white ruling authority. â€Å"For a few months after the war, white southerners had to contend with the losses of life, property and, in their eyes, honor.† â€Å"Southern state legislatures began enacting laws that made it clear that the aristocrats who ran them intended to yield none of their pre-war power and dominance over poor whites and especially over blacks† (www.splcenter.org). These laws would become known as the Black Codes. Mississippi and Florida, enacted vicious black codes, while other southern states passed less severe types, and President Johnson stood by and didShow MoreRelatedThe Ku Klux Klan ( Kkk )1554 Words   |  7 PagesThe Ku Klux Klan (KKK) came into being in 1865 and was widespread in the southern states of the USA. It was founded by former Confederate veterans in Pulaski, Tennessee. It was a movement, formed after the civil war of America, to oppress the Republican Party’s policies of reconstruction. Few years after its formation, the movement engaged in war, fear and hatred in the war-ravaged south. The group’s activities during this period have had adverse e ffects on the American society that still haunt themRead MoreMartin Luther King, The Southern Christian Leadership Conference2392 Words   |  10 Pagesaggression. The town also had a history of extreme violence, not only towards African Americans but â€Å"nigger-lovers† alike. Examples of previous violence towards African Americans and all those who supported their cause includes the most violent attacks seen on the Freedom Riders of 1961 and various bombing attacks which earned Birmingham the nickname of ‘Bombingham.’ The most notorious bombing happened after the Birmingham Campaign had concluded as a form of aftermath in the 16th Street Baptist ChurchRead MoreThe Civil Rights Movement Of The South2132 Words   |  9 Pageschildren and innocent people in order to try and stand in the way of victory. The Ku Klux Klan had been created by confederate veterans who believed that the South should have never changed and believed in a social order of a white supreme race. The KKK died down for a while until the former revival in Atlanta, Georgia on March 27, 1946. The following night eight crosses burned in Birmingham to mark the resurgence of the order in Alabama. After the Supreme Court had outlawed the segregation of theRead More The Nation of Islam Essay examples3877 Words   |  16 Pagespolice to that matter. Blacks just became more resentful toward white people, in Detroit. Another contributing factor to the conflict between blacks and whites was the KKK. Their numbers began to jump through the roof in membership. They went from 3,000 members to 22,000 in just a year and a half. As expected, with their new numbers, the KKK terrorized blacks and even entered in political field. (Turner) Naturally, with all of these things going on, blacks became more and more desperate for a way out.Read MorePre-Columbian Period9302 Words   |  38 Pagesthrough the Eastern United States, primarily along the river valleys. The location where the Mississippian culture is first clearly developed is located in Illinois, and is referred to today as Cahokia. [edit] Colonial period Main article: Colonial history of the United States The Mayflower, which transported Pilgrims to the New WorldAfter a period of exploration by people from various European countries, Spanish, Dutch, English, French, Swedish, and Portuguese settlements were established.[11]Read MoreSports And Its Impact On Society3522 Words   |  15 Pages Throughout history, sports have always made a significant impact on society. Many people like to think that the government or other upper echelon groups make the most impact on society’s changes and evolution. To an extent, that is obviously true, but many people overlook sport’s impact on societal changes too. The 1896 Summer Olympics was the first real sporting event that left a large footprint. Every four years, countries around the world and their athletes would put aside all of theirRead MoreThe Niger Delta Struggles: Its Implications for Resource Control.17990 Words   |  72 Pagescollective action in the Niger-delta draws inspiration from the 1966 declaration of a Niger Delta Republic by a group of nationalist youths led by cadet sub inspector Isaac Adaka Boro that involved an armed insurrection against the Nigerian state and the seizure of oil facilities. The recent and ongoing conflicts have witnessed massive deployments of the Nigerian Army, Navy and other security agencies and represent the most prolonged, extensive and intensive internal military action since the Nigerian

The Kite Runner Analysis - 1237 Words

Hosseini gives many examples of how political power such as the Taliban can bring out the evil in people but he also demonstrates how there is oppressive male power in relationships that also brings out the same human nature. He uses overbearing masculine characters in the The Kite Runner and gender roles to express how men were given the right to act in such horrific ways towards women. In Afghanistan there are many restrictions against women. Men have control over their wives and girlfriends. They have the dominant power and since it has been this way for so long it has become a social norm. Eastern culture is obviously different than Western culture when talking about gender roles but, Afghanistan men’s social power over them is immoral†¦show more content†¦This action is already going against Afghanistan’s gender social norms, she is suppose to be a compliant young woman, by taking care of her family and not having to much power to make her own decisions. S oraya is very disturbed by the fact that there is such a double standard in gender roles in Afghanistan explaining that men go out to nightclubs looking for meat and get their girlfriends pregnant, they have kids out of wedlock and no one says a goddamn thing.† While Soraya makes â€Å"one mistake and suddenly everyone is talking nang and namoos, and I have to have my face rubbed in it for the rest of my life (Hosseini 179). Hosseini portrays this double standard between men and women in this quote, explaining that women are expected much more of than men, if they make one little mistake, it carries with them for the rest of their life. Women are expected to have limited rules which weakens their power, whereas men are able to just live life which strengthens their power. Lastly, Sorayas father, General Taheri, makes her cut all of her hair off in after she forcefully comes home from Virginia. Hair is a symbol of femininity and freedom so when her father makes her cut it all off is conveys the meaning of her loss freedom. Therefore, she loses more power while General Taheri gains more. Finally, Hosseini portrays masculine power over women bringing out the evil in men in The Kite RunnerShow MoreRelatedCritical Analysis Of The Kite Runner1090 Words   |  5 Pages– H 31 October 2017 Consequences of War: A Critical Analysis of the Kite Runner On a day to day basis, an individual is faced with an obstacle they must overcome, ultimately defining their morals and values. In the literature perspective, the novel The Kite Runner delivers multiple thematic ideas that portray the struggles of characters in their ordinary lives. Khaled Hosseini, author and physician, released his debut novel The Kite Runner in the year of 2003. This novel is written in the firstRead MoreThematic Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1377 Words   |  6 PagesThematic Analysis of the Kite Runner John Piper once said, â€Å"Redemption is not perfection, the redeemed must realize their mistakes.† One can see an idea similar to this in Kahled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. In the story, the author sends the message that redemption can be a lifelong pursuit, and until achieved, happiness will not be obtained. The first time the reader is introduced to the theme comes at a time when Amir is feeling as though he is not deserving of his fathers appreciation. â€Å"BecauseRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1016 Words   |  5 PagesAccording to the dictionary redemption means â€Å" The act of saving from sin†. The kite Runner is about two boys that goes through violence and betrayal in Kabul, Afghanistan. One of the main characters Amir decided not to help his best friend caused their conflicts to grow. This reveals the theme of redemption throughout the Kite Runner. Most importantly, there is a motivation behind why Amir battles very nearly his whole existence with reclamation and that is on the grounds that Amir s hirelingRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner1078 Words   |  5 Pages The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini, a story of a boy as he unravels his journey throughout his life. The novel consists of multiple themes such as love, friendship, betrayal, guilt, , secrets, loyalty, and redemption. As the main character, Amir recalls his past events, all of these themes start to unravel specific events that occurred in his life. â€Å"There is a way to be good again† (Hosseini 2) is where the novel unfolds the deep dark life of Amir’s regret and guilt, Baba’s secret, and Hassan’sRead MoreThe Kite Runner Analysis772 Words   |  4 PagesThe Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini was a touching book that revolved around loyalty within a friendship. The friendship between Hassan and Amir had some difficulties. A true friendship can be hard to find(,) but can be one of the most vital things to being truly happy. Both Hassan and Amir had proven their loyalty to each other by the end of The Kite Runner. Loyalty was a crucial part in Hassan and Amir ’s friendship.   Ã‚  Ã‚   In the beginning, Hassan was not only loyal to Amir because that was his dutyRead MoreCritical Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1899 Words   |  8 PagesCritical Analysis of The Kite Runner â€Å"It may be unfair, but what happens in a few days, sometimes even a single day, can change the course of a whole lifetime†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (142). Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner unfolds the story of the affluent youth Amir and his servant friend Hassan, who are separated by a traumatizing sexual assault and the 1979 Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan. Despite a fresh start in San Francisco, Amir is devoured by guilt for failing to protect his loyal friend. Many years laterRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1229 Words   |  5 PagesShyanne Nobles Ms. Mastrokyriakos English 4A Literary Analysis on â€Å"The Kite Runner† Edward Michael a British adventurer, writer and television presenter of Man vs. Wild always says â€Å"survival can be summed up in three words - never give up. That’s the heart of it really. Just keep trying†. The Kite Runner is a fictional book with a heartbreaking plot and struggling characters that are easily sympathetic to the readers. An Afghani child that has to make life changing decisions at such a young ageRead MoreThe Kite Runner Analysis 1844 Words   |  8 PagesTherefore, being a father is very difficult, having to overcome obstacles and being strong for each other. A well-known saying â€Å"like father, like son† is evident in this novel by the different ties of relationship each character had. In the novel, The Kite Runner, Khaled Hosseini proves that there is need of a fatherly figure when growing up. Having a father-son bond helps the child differentiate right from wrong. The relationship which demonstrates the need of a father figure is depic ted by Baba and AmirRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1229 Words   |  5 PagesThe Kite Runner’s plot is centered on the story of Amir, a young boy who grew up in Afghanistan with his father, and friend, Hassan. Amir was raised without a mother, and had no womanly influence in his life until he was married. This lack of women in the storyline has caused some to argue that the novel is demeaning to women (Gomez). The vulgar language and explicit themes are seen as demoralizing towards the female gender (Schaub). In the novel the women are required to remain committed and submissiveRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1359 Words   |  6 Pages One major theme that is evident in The Kite Runner is that scars are reminders of life’s pain and regret, and, though you can ease the regret and the scars will fade, neither will completely go away. We all have regrets and always will, but though it will be a long hard process we can lessen them through redemption. The m ajority of The Kite Runner is about the narrator and protagonist, Amir. Almost all of the characters in The Kite Runner have scars, whether they are physical or emotional. Baba

The Kite Runner Analysis - 1237 Words

Hosseini gives many examples of how political power such as the Taliban can bring out the evil in people but he also demonstrates how there is oppressive male power in relationships that also brings out the same human nature. He uses overbearing masculine characters in the The Kite Runner and gender roles to express how men were given the right to act in such horrific ways towards women. In Afghanistan there are many restrictions against women. Men have control over their wives and girlfriends. They have the dominant power and since it has been this way for so long it has become a social norm. Eastern culture is obviously different than Western culture when talking about gender roles but, Afghanistan men’s social power over them is immoral†¦show more content†¦This action is already going against Afghanistan’s gender social norms, she is suppose to be a compliant young woman, by taking care of her family and not having to much power to make her own decisions. S oraya is very disturbed by the fact that there is such a double standard in gender roles in Afghanistan explaining that men go out to nightclubs looking for meat and get their girlfriends pregnant, they have kids out of wedlock and no one says a goddamn thing.† While Soraya makes â€Å"one mistake and suddenly everyone is talking nang and namoos, and I have to have my face rubbed in it for the rest of my life (Hosseini 179). Hosseini portrays this double standard between men and women in this quote, explaining that women are expected much more of than men, if they make one little mistake, it carries with them for the rest of their life. Women are expected to have limited rules which weakens their power, whereas men are able to just live life which strengthens their power. Lastly, Sorayas father, General Taheri, makes her cut all of her hair off in after she forcefully comes home from Virginia. Hair is a symbol of femininity and freedom so when her father makes her cut it all off is conveys the meaning of her loss freedom. Therefore, she loses more power while General Taheri gains more. Finally, Hosseini portrays masculine power over women bringing out the evil in men in The Kite RunnerShow MoreRelatedCritical Analysis Of The Kite Runner1090 Words   |  5 Pages– H 31 October 2017 Consequences of War: A Critical Analysis of the Kite Runner On a day to day basis, an individual is faced with an obstacle they must overcome, ultimately defining their morals and values. In the literature perspective, the novel The Kite Runner delivers multiple thematic ideas that portray the struggles of characters in their ordinary lives. Khaled Hosseini, author and physician, released his debut novel The Kite Runner in the year of 2003. This novel is written in the firstRead MoreThematic Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1377 Words   |  6 PagesThematic Analysis of the Kite Runner John Piper once said, â€Å"Redemption is not perfection, the redeemed must realize their mistakes.† One can see an idea similar to this in Kahled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. In the story, the author sends the message that redemption can be a lifelong pursuit, and until achieved, happiness will not be obtained. The first time the reader is introduced to the theme comes at a time when Amir is feeling as though he is not deserving of his fathers appreciation. â€Å"BecauseRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1016 Words   |  5 PagesAccording to the dictionary redemption means â€Å" The act of saving from sin†. The kite Runner is about two boys that goes through violence and betrayal in Kabul, Afghanistan. One of the main characters Amir decided not to help his best friend caused their conflicts to grow. This reveals the theme of redemption throughout the Kite Runner. Most importantly, there is a motivation behind why Amir battles very nearly his whole existence with reclamation and that is on the grounds that Amir s hirelingRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner1078 Words   |  5 Pages The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini, a story of a boy as he unravels his journey throughout his life. The novel consists of multiple themes such as love, friendship, betrayal, guilt, , secrets, loyalty, and redemption. As the main character, Amir recalls his past events, all of these themes start to unravel specific events that occurred in his life. â€Å"There is a way to be good again† (Hosseini 2) is where the novel unfolds the deep dark life of Amir’s regret and guilt, Baba’s secret, and Hassan’sRead MoreThe Kite Runner Analysis772 Words   |  4 PagesThe Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini was a touching book that revolved around loyalty within a friendship. The friendship between Hassan and Amir had some difficulties. A true friendship can be hard to find(,) but can be one of the most vital things to being truly happy. Both Hassan and Amir had proven their loyalty to each other by the end of The Kite Runner. Loyalty was a crucial part in Hassan and Amir ’s friendship.   Ã‚  Ã‚   In the beginning, Hassan was not only loyal to Amir because that was his dutyRead MoreCritical Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1899 Words   |  8 PagesCritical Analysis of The Kite Runner â€Å"It may be unfair, but what happens in a few days, sometimes even a single day, can change the course of a whole lifetime†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (142). Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner unfolds the story of the affluent youth Amir and his servant friend Hassan, who are separated by a traumatizing sexual assault and the 1979 Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan. Despite a fresh start in San Francisco, Amir is devoured by guilt for failing to protect his loyal friend. Many years laterRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1229 Words   |  5 PagesShyanne Nobles Ms. Mastrokyriakos English 4A Literary Analysis on â€Å"The Kite Runner† Edward Michael a British adventurer, writer and television presenter of Man vs. Wild always says â€Å"survival can be summed up in three words - never give up. That’s the heart of it really. Just keep trying†. The Kite Runner is a fictional book with a heartbreaking plot and struggling characters that are easily sympathetic to the readers. An Afghani child that has to make life changing decisions at such a young ageRead MoreThe Kite Runner Analysis 1844 Words   |  8 PagesTherefore, being a father is very difficult, having to overcome obstacles and being strong for each other. A well-known saying â€Å"like father, like son† is evident in this novel by the different ties of relationship each character had. In the novel, The Kite Runner, Khaled Hosseini proves that there is need of a fatherly figure when growing up. Having a father-son bond helps the child differentiate right from wrong. The relationship which demonstrates the need of a father figure is depic ted by Baba and AmirRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1229 Words   |  5 PagesThe Kite Runner’s plot is centered on the story of Amir, a young boy who grew up in Afghanistan with his father, and friend, Hassan. Amir was raised without a mother, and had no womanly influence in his life until he was married. This lack of women in the storyline has caused some to argue that the novel is demeaning to women (Gomez). The vulgar language and explicit themes are seen as demoralizing towards the female gender (Schaub). In the novel the women are required to remain committed and submissiveRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1359 Words   |  6 Pages One major theme that is evident in The Kite Runner is that scars are reminders of life’s pain and regret, and, though you can ease the regret and the scars will fade, neither will completely go away. We all have regrets and always will, but though it will be a long hard process we can lessen them through redemption. The m ajority of The Kite Runner is about the narrator and protagonist, Amir. Almost all of the characters in The Kite Runner have scars, whether they are physical or emotional. Baba

The Kite Runner Analysis - 1237 Words

Hosseini gives many examples of how political power such as the Taliban can bring out the evil in people but he also demonstrates how there is oppressive male power in relationships that also brings out the same human nature. He uses overbearing masculine characters in the The Kite Runner and gender roles to express how men were given the right to act in such horrific ways towards women. In Afghanistan there are many restrictions against women. Men have control over their wives and girlfriends. They have the dominant power and since it has been this way for so long it has become a social norm. Eastern culture is obviously different than Western culture when talking about gender roles but, Afghanistan men’s social power over them is immoral†¦show more content†¦This action is already going against Afghanistan’s gender social norms, she is suppose to be a compliant young woman, by taking care of her family and not having to much power to make her own decisions. S oraya is very disturbed by the fact that there is such a double standard in gender roles in Afghanistan explaining that men go out to nightclubs looking for meat and get their girlfriends pregnant, they have kids out of wedlock and no one says a goddamn thing.† While Soraya makes â€Å"one mistake and suddenly everyone is talking nang and namoos, and I have to have my face rubbed in it for the rest of my life (Hosseini 179). Hosseini portrays this double standard between men and women in this quote, explaining that women are expected much more of than men, if they make one little mistake, it carries with them for the rest of their life. Women are expected to have limited rules which weakens their power, whereas men are able to just live life which strengthens their power. Lastly, Sorayas father, General Taheri, makes her cut all of her hair off in after she forcefully comes home from Virginia. Hair is a symbol of femininity and freedom so when her father makes her cut it all off is conveys the meaning of her loss freedom. Therefore, she loses more power while General Taheri gains more. Finally, Hosseini portrays masculine power over women bringing out the evil in men in The Kite RunnerShow MoreRelatedCritical Analysis Of The Kite Runner1090 Words   |  5 Pages– H 31 October 2017 Consequences of War: A Critical Analysis of the Kite Runner On a day to day basis, an individual is faced with an obstacle they must overcome, ultimately defining their morals and values. In the literature perspective, the novel The Kite Runner delivers multiple thematic ideas that portray the struggles of characters in their ordinary lives. Khaled Hosseini, author and physician, released his debut novel The Kite Runner in the year of 2003. This novel is written in the firstRead MoreThematic Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1377 Words   |  6 PagesThematic Analysis of the Kite Runner John Piper once said, â€Å"Redemption is not perfection, the redeemed must realize their mistakes.† One can see an idea similar to this in Kahled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. In the story, the author sends the message that redemption can be a lifelong pursuit, and until achieved, happiness will not be obtained. The first time the reader is introduced to the theme comes at a time when Amir is feeling as though he is not deserving of his fathers appreciation. â€Å"BecauseRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1016 Words   |  5 PagesAccording to the dictionary redemption means â€Å" The act of saving from sin†. The kite Runner is about two boys that goes through violence and betrayal in Kabul, Afghanistan. One of the main characters Amir decided not to help his best friend caused their conflicts to grow. This reveals the theme of redemption throughout the Kite Runner. Most importantly, there is a motivation behind why Amir battles very nearly his whole existence with reclamation and that is on the grounds that Amir s hirelingRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner1078 Words   |  5 Pages The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini, a story of a boy as he unravels his journey throughout his life. The novel consists of multiple themes such as love, friendship, betrayal, guilt, , secrets, loyalty, and redemption. As the main character, Amir recalls his past events, all of these themes start to unravel specific events that occurred in his life. â€Å"There is a way to be good again† (Hosseini 2) is where the novel unfolds the deep dark life of Amir’s regret and guilt, Baba’s secret, and Hassan’sRead MoreThe Kite Runner Analysis772 Words   |  4 PagesThe Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini was a touching book that revolved around loyalty within a friendship. The friendship between Hassan and Amir had some difficulties. A true friendship can be hard to find(,) but can be one of the most vital things to being truly happy. Both Hassan and Amir had proven their loyalty to each other by the end of The Kite Runner. Loyalty was a crucial part in Hassan and Amir ’s friendship.   Ã‚  Ã‚   In the beginning, Hassan was not only loyal to Amir because that was his dutyRead MoreCritical Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1899 Words   |  8 PagesCritical Analysis of The Kite Runner â€Å"It may be unfair, but what happens in a few days, sometimes even a single day, can change the course of a whole lifetime†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (142). Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner unfolds the story of the affluent youth Amir and his servant friend Hassan, who are separated by a traumatizing sexual assault and the 1979 Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan. Despite a fresh start in San Francisco, Amir is devoured by guilt for failing to protect his loyal friend. Many years laterRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Kite Runner 1229 Words   |  5 PagesShyanne Nobles Ms. Mastrokyriakos English 4A Literary Analysis on â€Å"The Kite Runner† Edward Michael a British adventurer, writer and television presenter of Man vs. Wild always says â€Å"survival can be summed up in three words - never give up. That’s the heart of it really. Just keep trying†. The Kite Runner is a fictional book with a heartbreaking plot and struggling characters that are easily sympathetic to the readers. An Afghani child that has to make life changing decisions at such a young ageRead MoreThe Kite Runner Analysis 1844 Words   |  8 PagesTherefore, being a father is very difficult, having to overcome obstacles and being strong for each other. A well-known saying â€Å"like father, like son† is evident in this novel by the different ties of relationship each character had. In the novel, The Kite Runner, Khaled Hosseini proves that there is need of a fatherly figure when growing up. Having a father-son bond helps the child differentiate right from wrong. The relationship which demonstrates the need of a father figure is depic ted by Baba and AmirRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1229 Words   |  5 PagesThe Kite Runner’s plot is centered on the story of Amir, a young boy who grew up in Afghanistan with his father, and friend, Hassan. Amir was raised without a mother, and had no womanly influence in his life until he was married. This lack of women in the storyline has caused some to argue that the novel is demeaning to women (Gomez). The vulgar language and explicit themes are seen as demoralizing towards the female gender (Schaub). In the novel the women are required to remain committed and submissiveRead MoreAnalysis Of The Kite Runner 1359 Words   |  6 Pages One major theme that is evident in The Kite Runner is that scars are reminders of life’s pain and regret, and, though you can ease the regret and the scars will fade, neither will completely go away. We all have regrets and always will, but though it will be a long hard process we can lessen them through redemption. The m ajority of The Kite Runner is about the narrator and protagonist, Amir. Almost all of the characters in The Kite Runner have scars, whether they are physical or emotional. Baba

Still a Threat to the United States Free Essays

The tenth anniversary of the 9/1 1 attacks prompted reflections on the current status of the terrorism threat to the United States. One aspect of an assessment†the threat posed by biological weapons†is especially challenging because of the unique character of these weapons. A prime distinction is the fact that exposure to minute quantities of a biological agent may go unnoticed, yet ultimately be the cause of disease and death. We will write a custom essay sample on Still a Threat to the United States or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Incubation period of a microbial agent can be days or weeks; unlike a bombing, knifing, or chemical dispersion, a bioattack might not be ecognized until long after the agent’s release. Accordingly, bioterrorism poses distinctive challenges for preparedness, protection, and response. The use of a pathogen for hostile purposes became a consuming concern to the American people soon after 9/1 1 . About a half-dozen letters containing anthrax spores were mailed to Journalists and polltlclans beginning one week after the jetliner attacks. Four letters with spores and threat messages eventually were recovered. All were postmarked Trenton, New Jersey, which meant that they had been processed at the postal distribution center in nearby Hamilton. Two letters were postmarked September 18, one addressed to Tom Brokaw at NBC-TV and another to the editor of the New York Post. The other two letters were stamped October 9 and addressed to Senators Thomas Daschle and Patrick Leahy. As people became infected in September, October and November, local responses revealed gaps in preparedness for a biological attack. For example, the first confirmation of an anthrax case was on October 4, more than two weeks after the initial letters were mailed. Retrospective assessments later indicated that by then nine people had already contracted the disease. Their illness previously had been misidentified because of faulty diagnoses or erroneous laboratory In the end, at least 22 people had become infected, five of whom died. Meanwhile, scores of buildings were belatedly found to be contaminated with spores that had leaked from the letters. At least 30,000 people who were deemed at risk required prophylactic antibiotics. [2] Millions more were fearful, many of them anxious about opening their own mail. Since the anthrax attacks, the U. S. government has spent about $60 billion on biodefense. A large portion of those dollars has gone to biodefense research under he auspices of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). The NIAID budget for biodefense research has grown from $200 million in 2001 to an annual average of $1. 6 billion since 2004. United States safer from a bioattack now than at the time of the anthrax attacks? Has the spending been worth it? Key Questions, Discrepant Answers Opinions on these questions differ. While concerned about the danger of backsliding, the authors of an article in Politico now felt â€Å"reassured about our preparedness† for a biological attack. [3] At the same time, an opposing assessment was emblazoned in he title of a New York Times Magazine cover story: â€Å"Ten Years After the Anthrax Attacks, We Are Still Not Ready. [4] A review of biodefense efforts during the past 10 years in Science magazine blandly acknowledged the obvious: â€Å"debate continues over how much safer the country The congressionally chartered Commission on the Prevention of Weapons of Mass Destruction Proliferation and Terrorism (WMD Commission) issued a report card in 2010 on efforts to address several of its previous recommendations. The administration’s failure to â€Å"enhance the nationâ⠂¬â„¢s capabilities for rapid response to revent biological attacks from inflicting mass casualties† merited a grade of â€Å"F† (meaning that no action was taken on this recommendation). Almost as bad was the â€Å"D*† given for continuing inadequate oversight of high-containment laboratories. Reasonable arguments can be made to support varied views about these issues, and all conclusions bear a degree of subjectivity. Yet an assessment of several broad critical contentions can offer clarification. The criticisms are largely expressed in the form of five contentions. Contention #1 : Funding for biodefense has meant fewer dollars for other deserving reas such as public health infrastructure and basic science research. In 2005, 758 microbiologists signed a letter to Elias Zerhouni, then director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), objecting to the diversion of funds from public health research to biodefense projects. Zerhouni, Joined by NIAID Director Anthony Fauci, rejected the letter’s premise of â€Å"diversion. † An assessment of disputed interpretations suggested that spending on biodefense benefited non-biodefense research as well, but the numbers were so â€Å"convoluted† that a clear determination was elusive. [7] An analysis of the biodefense budget for fiscal year 2012 indicates that only 10% of the proposed $6. billion is dedicated exclusively to civilian biodefense. The other 90% is for projects with both biodefense and non-biodefense implications. The non- biodefense goals, according to analysts Crystal Franco and Tara Kirk Sell, include â€Å"advancing other areas of science, public health, healthcare, national security, or international security. â€Å" [8] This tilt toward dual-track benefits has been reflected in past budgets as well. A report in Nature magazine indicated that of the $60 billion pent on biodefense in the past decade, only about $12 billion went for programs have benefited substantially from biodefense projects. Fiscal woes in recent years have in fact resulted in reduced resources for public health and related programs. Economic pressure threatens to shrink biodefense funding as it does funding for much else in the federal budget; however, it is not clear now, nor was it in the past, if fewer dollars for biodefense would necessarily translate into more for public health, basic research, or any other health-related programs. Contention #2: The growing number of facilities for research on select agents specified pathogens and toxins) has heightened chances of an accidental release. Statistics alone make this assertion unassailable. The chances of something going wrong in any enterprise, assuming no change in operational security, increase with the size of the enterprise. As the number of research facilities increases, so does the chance of an accident. A continuing weakness is the lack of clarity about the number of high security laboratories. In 1983, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) designated four levels of safety for laboratory work with biological agents. A Biosafety Level-I (BSL-I) laboratory allows for work on relatively innocuous agents and a BSL-4 laboratory on the most dangerous. The two highest containment facilities, BSL-3 and BSL-4, require special security measures including restricted access, negative pressure to prevent air from flowing out of the room, and protective outerwear for operators. BSL-4 laboratories require additional safeguards such as entry through multiple air-locked rooms and positive pressure outerwear with a segregated air supply. A BSL-4 laboratory is required for work on agents that cause lethal disease for which here is little or no treatment (for example, smallpox and hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola and Marburg). At present, there are 15 such U. S. facilities planned or in operation, triple the number operating in 2001. [10] Other dangerous agents, including the bacteria that cause anthrax and plague, are worked on in BSL-3 laboratories. The number of these laboratories has skyrocketed since 2001, although the actual figures are uncertain. While an estimated 20 BSL-3 facilities were operating before the anthrax attacks, in the decade since the number has grown to between 200 and an astonishing 1,400 or ore. [11] The huge discrepancy is attributable in part to varied methods of calculation. Some assessments have counted all BSL-3 laboratories in an institution as a single BSL-3 facility, while others have designated each laboratory as a separate entity. Furthermore, some laboratories with a BSL-3 designation may lack safety features found in others, such as double doors and a requirement that two persons must be present. No national authority is now empowered to mandate a single system of counting or that even the lowest estimated number of BSL-3 laboratories (200) represents a 10- old increase in the past 10 years, and that safety precautions at some BSL-3 facilities are less rigorous than at others. Contention #3: The growing number of investigators with knowledge about select agents has increased the chances that an unsavory scientist could launch a bioattack. Along with more high containment facilities has come more scientists who handle select agents. Concern about dangerous individuals among them was heightened in 2008 when the FBI named Bruce Ivins as the perpetrator of the 2001 anthrax attacks. Ivins was a veteran scientist who for decades had worked on anthrax at the U. S. Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) in Fort Detrick, Maryland. Before charges could be brought he committed suicide, so his guilt or innocence could never be established in a court of law. Still, evidence of his aberrational behavior, including alcoholism, depression, and self-described bouts of paranoia, evidently went unnoticed by his superiors. The Ivins case highlighted questions about the screening of workers with ready access to select agents. The number of those workers Just prior to the anthrax attacks has been estimated at about 700. By 2008, however, the figure had climbed to more han As some have suggested, the greater numbers mean that â€Å"the odds of one of them turning out to be a bad apple has increased. â€Å"[13] Ironically, Ivins was not a newly minted investigator, but a long-respected fgure in the army’s biodefense program. Days after Ivins’ death, a USAMRIID spokesperson acknowledged that officials may have been unaware of his problems because they relied in part on self-reporting. [14] In 2011, a mental health review panel concluded that â€Å"Dr. Ivins had a significant and lengthy history of psychological disturbance and diagnosable mental illness at the time he began working for USAMRIID in The Ivins case has raised concerns that other troubled or nefarious individuals might be working in U. S. laboratories. A recent government-sponsored forum on biosecurity called for periodic behavioral evaluations of personnel with access to select agents that include drug testing, searches for criminal history, and completion by selectees of a security questionnaire. 16] Even while acknowledging the necessity of security measures, the right to privacy and freedom of scientific inquiry must be respected to the extent possible. In any case, behavioral monitoring can never provide absolute protection against the acts of a lever miscreant. Contention #4: Money for biodefense has been misapplied or otherwise failed to produce desired results. Project BioShield was established by congress in 2004 to acquire medical countermeasures against bio logical, chemical, and radiological vaccines and other drugs that have not necessarily been tested for efficacy on humans. Beyond the loss of time and money, the VaxGen failure was a public embarrassment. It became a symbol of ineptness early in the new program. Other biosecurity programs have also drawn criticism, including a $534 million surveillance project called BioWatch. This program included the placement of air amplers for detection of anthrax spores and other agents in more than 30 major U. S. cities. A committee convened by the National Academy of Sciences concluded in 2010 that the program was faced with â€Å"serious technical and operational challenges. † Others flatly criticized its funding as wasted. How to cite Still a Threat to the United States, Papers